Author: Aixa Ḥafṣa, Sandara Azra, Anggi
Cecilia Safaningrum, & Adib Rifqi Setiawan
Abstract
This
work describe briefly some significant developments in the education system and
highlight the ways in which educational policy has been used to try to provide
an education for a very diverse group of learners in Indonesian context.
Keywords:
education system; educational policy; Indonesia;
[A] Introduction
Understanding
how and why the education system has developed and changed over time will
enable readers to appreciate the present-day challenges faced by science
teacher educators, researchers, teachers, and students in Indonesia and offers
some context for considering what issues are significant to address in the
future. The Indonesian education system has undergone a great deal of
transformation starting from the pre-colonial and colonial era through the
early years of independence until today. We highlight significant
transformations and events impacting on policy and practice related to student
enrollment and access to school, teacher preparation and certification
processes, and national science curriculum and resource development. A cursory
search of research published in international science education journals
reveals very few studies describing science education in Indonesia.
This work
seeks to fill this gap by contributing to readers’ improved understanding about
Indonesia’s science education research context. For clarity for Indonesian
readers, Bahasa Indonesian terms are used to introduce specific people, places,
and educational laws and policies. We do not include these terms in the list of
abbreviations because the Bahasa and English language abbreviations are not equivalent.
[B] Historical
Developments
Indonesia
is positioned along the equatorial line separating the Indian and Pacific
oceans and consists of an estimated 17,500 islands covering nearly 1,913,000 km2.
As such, it is the largest archipelagic country in the world. Indonesia’s
geographic location and plentiful natural resources has historically made the
islands a critical part of international trade and has had lasting consequences
for Indonesia’s economy and society. During the 1500–1600s, Indonesia became a
hub for trading among merchants from countries in the Middle East, Europe, and
India. In the late sixteenth century the Dutch East India Company forcibly
colonized Indonesia and took control of its land and resources. The trading
company came to be administered by the Dutch government in 1800.
By
1819, the territory became an official colony of the Netherlands called the
Dutch East Indies. During the colonial era, the Dutch introduced limited public
and private schooling reserved solely for the Dutch and other Europeans. In
1870, some schools (pribumi) were also opened for native Indonesians.
However, these schools were largely underfunded, provided only 2 or 3 years of
training in basic literacy and math, and were mainly located in urban areas.
Before colonialism, there was no systemic national education program; however,
Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic schools provided religious education for their
followers. During colonial rule, education in rural areas continued to be left
to religious organizations, including Christian missionaries and Muslim
religious schools.
By
the 1920s, it is estimated that less than 7% of the native population was
literate, with the literate population being located only in the urban centers
and on large islands. In the 1920s and 1940s, the Dutch established some
medical schools, trade schools, arts and agriculture schools. Several of these
schools evolved into present day universities, including Indonesia University
(Universitas Indonesia [UI]) and Bogor Agriculture Institute (Institut
Pertanian Bogor [IPB]). Lack of access to educational opportunities for native
populations contributed to growing anti-colonial sentiment among middle-and upper-class
Indonesians. However, the Dutch continued to occupy the lands, control the
natural resources, and rule over the people of Indonesia until the 1940s when
the Netherlands was occupied by Germany during World War II. This time period was
very volatile as there was a growing movement among Indonesian nationalists to
proclaim their independence from the Dutch.
In
1942, with the Dutch unable to defend the colony, the Japanese invaded and
occupied Indonesia. Initially, some Indonesians who had sought to escape Dutch
colonial rule welcomed the Japanese invasion. During their occupation of
Indonesia, the Japanese introduced the first system of mass education, which
opened schools for all students and supported the use of local languages for instruction.
However, similar to the Dutch colonial schools, education in these schools were
designed to support the needs of Japan as an occupying power rather than
promote the educational development of native Indonesians. The Japanese remained
present until the end of the war in 1945.
[C] Early
Independence Period
Sukarno,
leader of the Indonesian nationalist movement, declared independence from both
the Dutch and Japanese on August 17, 1945. Sukarno served as Indonesia’s first
post-colonial era president from 1945 to 1967. During the post-colonial period,
Sukarno’s government worked to establish and develop an education system that
could unify a large and diverse population of people. Following the end of the
second world war, few teachers or principals were left to manage the school
system as the vast majority of educators had been members of the colonial
powers and were no longer in power. Sukarno successfully led Indonesia to
resist Dutch efforts to recolonize the country until 1949, when the Dutch
formally acknowledged Indonesia’s independence. Indonesia was officially
recognized as a member of the United Nations in 1950.
Following
the war, in the early years after independence, the Indonesian government began
to develop a national education system with a focus on providing free universal
primary education. From as early as 1945, Islamic educational institutions
called pesantren have served as important centers for educating school age
students. However, an important declaration of the Sukarno-led government was
the right of citizens to receive an education regardless of their ethnic or
religious beliefs. Sukarno’s government sought to develop an education system
that promoted nationalism and that was anti-discriminatory to different ethnic
groups and religious beliefs. Sukarno’s government oversaw and led the first
expansion and development of schools and teacher training programs for the
indigenous population of Indonesia. One of Sukarno’s most influential
government policy decisions was the introduction of the ideology of Unity in
Diversity (Bhinneka Tunggal Ika), which is framed by the philosophy of
the Five Principles (Pancasila).
The Pancasila
philosophy is often viewed as a form of pluralism and call for moderation
intended to help create a balance between the interests of individual groups
and the larger society. These principles have been used to unite Indonesian
society by asserting the need for everyone to value a belief in one God,
humanitarianism, national unity, democracy, and social justice. The adoption of
these policies has had important implications for critical decision-making in
government policy regarding religion and language in education. For example,
while Indonesia is home to more 600 different ethnic groups that speak more
than 700 different languages, Sukarno established Bahasa Indonesia as the
national language to be used in formal forums, mass media, governmental and
judicial institutions, and in schools. At that time, Bahasa Indonesia was the
native language for only about 5% of the population, but because it has been
used as a lingua franca in the archipelago for centuries many different ethnic
groups spoke it as a common second language. Choosing a language spoken by one
of the majority ethnic groups did not align with nation’s adoption of the Pancasila.
The use of Bahasa Indonesia as the national language has been seen as a
critical tool in the development of cross-cultural communication and the
development of a shared national identity among Indonesian people. The
government’s respect for diversity and the belief that the needs of individual
groups of people need to be balanced with societal needs have been instrumental
in shaping public policies aimed at recognizing and respecting Indonesia’s
diverse population.
[D] Contemporary
Period
In
1967, following a regime change, Soeharto became the second president of
Indonesia. During Soeharto’s presidency, from 1967 until his resignation in
1998, he oversaw many initiatives that served to expand opportunities for
students to access education. In 1973, the Indonesian Presidential Instruction
(INPRES) strategic policy was launched in response to an increased demand for public
schooling. Under this program, nearly 40,000 primary school facilities were
constructed or repaired to help accommodate the new students enrolling in
elementary schools.
By
the late 1980s, Indonesia had achieved free universal primary education and had
begun to target the expansion of the basic education program from 6 to 9 years.
In 1994, the government established the policy for supporting 9 years of free
compulsory education for all students. From 1994 until 2012, the net enrollment
ratio for junior secondary schools increased significantly from 50% to 70%. In
2013, the government established universal secondary education that extended
compulsory education requirements from 9 to 12 years. While primary and lower
secondary education is free, minimal fees are required for students to attend
upper secondary schools.
The
Indonesian government and the country’s science educators are tasked with
effectively educating diverse student groups to meet the changing needs of the
country, both economically and socially. Science education is expected to play
an important role in preparing students to be leaders in STEM fields and to
improve the citizens’ overall health and scientific literacy.
[E] Indonesian
K-20 Education System Overview
In
Indonesia, two different ministries oversee the policy and curriculum for all
K-12 schools, the Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (Kemdikbud,
Ministry of Education and Culture, MOEC) is responsible for secular schools,
including both general and vocational schools, nor Kementerian Agama (Kemenag,
Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA) is responsible for all religious schools
(madrasah) and the State Islamic University system. Graduates from both secular
and religious schools can attend any post-secondary public or private secular
university, which are all managed by Pendidikan Tinggi (Dikti, Higher
Education (MRTHE).
Although
all three ministries regulate different educational institutions, they have
each adopted a single educational-track structure consisting of 6 years of
elementary school, 3 years of junior secondary school, 3 years of senior
secondary school, followed by 4 years of tertiary education at the
undergraduate university level (6–3–3-4). Recently, education has been extended
to also include pre-school education for young learners.
As
the K-12 education system is instrumental in preparing the current and future
workforce, the government is working for a balance between the academic and
vocational education sectors that can support both the development of academic
scholarship and research and the practical trades necessary for various
industries. Currently, the government is working to more effectively support
and regulate tertiary education as well.
|
Table
1. An Overview of
the Indonesian K-20 Education System
|
|||
|
Age
|
School
Year
|
Formal
Educational Level
|
Types
of Education
|
|
5–6
|
1–2
(2 years)
|
Kindergarten
|
General
schools (Taman Kanak-kanak-TK)
Islamic
schools (Raudatul Athfal-RA)
|
|
7–12
|
3–8
(6 years)
|
Elementary
school
|
General
schools (Sekolah Dasar-SD)
Islamic
schools (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah-MI)
|
|
13–15
|
9–11
(3 years)
|
Junior
secondary school
|
General
schools (Sekolah Menengah Pertama-SMP)
Islamic
schools (Madrasah Tsanawiyah-MT)
|
|
16-18
|
12–14
(3 years)
|
Senior
Secondary School
|
General
School (Sekolah Menengah Atas-SMA)
Vocational
School (Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan-SMK)
Islamic
School (Madrasah Aliyah-MA)
|
|
19–22
|
4
years
|
Undergraduate
|
Academic
education program (Bachelor’s degree)
Vocational
education program (Diploma degree)
|
|
22–23
|
2
years
|
Graduate
|
Academic
education program (Master’s Degree)
Professional
education program Specialist education program (from Professional education
program)
Applied
master’s program (from vocational education)
|
|
24–26
|
3
years
|
Post-graduate
|
Academic
education program (Doctoral degree)
Applied
doctoral program (from applied master program)
|
Non-profit
foundations, known as yayasan, and state-owned enterprises (Badan Usaha
Milik Negara [BUMN]), have established many private schools and
universities of widely varying degrees of quality. At the tertiary education
level, there are significantly more private universities than state-sponsored
universities.
 |
|
Figure
1.
|
The
source of income for these institutions may come from tuition, funding from
private organizations, or governmental support. For private schools in
particular, the central government has been providing financial support through
school operational funds (Dana Bantuan Operasional Sekolah, Dana BOS).
Nearly 10% of elementary schools, 40% of junior secondary schools, 50% of
senior secondary schools, and 75% of vocational senior secondary schools are
not run by the state. Even while the government financially supports many of
these private educational institutions, these schools have the authority to
employ teachers and to provide education to the public.
[F] Conclusion
We
conclude our introduction by highlighting the significant strides of the last
three decades, during which time the Indonesian government has expanded access
to education and increased school operational funding (Dana BOS) such
that the vast majority of students are now enrolled in school. This is a
considerable feat as Indonesia is currently the fourth most densely populated
country in the world, after China, India, and the United States.
From
1970 until 2010, the population has doubled from 120 million to over 238
million people—and the population is expected to continue to grow to reach 305
million by 2035. Education statistics from 2016 show universal gross enrolment
ratio of schooling in Indonesia for children at the primary (109%) and junior
secondary (90%) levels and increasing enrollment rates for senior secondary
(80%) and tertiary (23%) levels. Compared to any previous period, these data
reflect the highest gross enrollment percentage rates ever.
This
number is only expected to rise as the government is working to fully implement
the 2014 legislation increasing compulsory education from 9 to 12 years.
Providing an education for 52 million K-12 school children in a country that
was devastated just two generations ago by the collapse of the post-war and
post-colonial government and economy is a remarkable achievement. In the past,
the government needed to focus on building capacity for increasing the quantity
of students served by the education system. Presently the government is
focusing on improving the quality of education for teachers and students.
Today, the government and private sector manage are responsible for training
and employing about 3.8 million teachers working in more than 300,000 schools.
That there are more students and even more teachers in the Indonesian education
system than there are people in many countries in the world presents a growing
challenge for policy makers and government officials developing measures to
ensure a high quality education for all students in the country. Currently,
initiatives focused on developing the national curriculum, improving teacher
preparation and professional development initiatives, and promoting educational
research are driving change in the education system and it is having an impact
on science teaching and learning as well.
Acknowledgements
This
work was supported by and devoted to Fadhilaturrahmi, as our academic advisor.
Competing
interests
We declare
that have no competing interests. In addition, the data collected from this work
did not involve human subjects so no human subjects approval was necessary.